Physicians of the Islamic Golden Age made important advances in the fields of human anatomy and physiology.

Amongst these is the work of Ibn al-Nafis, a 13th-century Syrian physician, who made significant in cardiology. He was the first to correctly observe the structure of the heart, detailed in his predominant work, 'Commentary on the Anatomy of the Canon of Avicenna'. He also made the link of blood being “purified” (oxidised) in the lungs, and was the first to understand the mechanism of the pulse and touched upon the idea of capillaries as microscopic pores. His work corrected many misconceptions made by the works of other renowned physicians, and his observations were a major advance in the comprehension of the human body.

11th-century Iraqi scientist Ibn al-Haytham made advances in the field of optics, explaining that the eye was an optical instrument and developing the theory for image formation, explained through the refraction of light rays passing between two media of different densities.

Ahmad ibn Abi al-Ash'ath, a famous physician from 10th-century Iraq, described the physiology of the stomach in a live lion, making him the first person to initiate experimental events in gastric physiology.

12th-centry Iraqi physician and traveller Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi made advances in osteology, correcting works of Greek physician Galen regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw (mandible), coccyx and sacrum after he had the opportunity to examine a large number of skeletons during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH.

Medical contributions made by medieval Islam included the use of plants as a type of remedy or medicine. Remedies used included Papaver somniferum Linnaeus, poppy, and Cannabis sativa Linnaeus, hemp. Many traditional remedies are still used across the world to this day, and as more are studied, modern tests prove many of them to be beneficial to the health of the human body.

Islamic physicians lay the foundations for modern scientific experimentation by using methodical research and meticulous documentation of herbal remedies; at the time, Islamic physicians and scientists were the only ones using scientific experimentation. As the territory of the Islamic empire grew, new plants, seeds, and spices were discovered and tested for medicinal uses. Hospitals kept herbal garden, and many cultivated an extensive collection of medicinal plants.

Ali al-Ruhawi believed that a physician must be a botanist and understand pharmacological characteristics of the various morphological parts. Islamic scholars produced numerous works on herbal remedies. The first book to document medicinal plants at the time was 'The Book of Plants', which was written by 9th-century Iranian al-Dinawari (known as the ‘Father of modern botany’). His work was of such importance at the time that physicians and pharmacists had to memorise it in order to be allowed to practise medicine.

Other notable works included 'Dictionary of Simple Remedies and Food' by Ibn al-Baytar, which studied over three thousand plants; 'The Collection of Simples, Medicinal Plants and Resulting Medicines' by Ibn Samajun, which classified many plants by their medical properties; and 'The Book of Simple Drugs' by al-Gafiqi, whose work was so accurate that it was republished in 1932.

Surgical practices and equipment in the Islamic empire was the most advanced in the world, and still influence surgery in the modern day. Notable surgeons of the time included Ibn al-Haytham, a prominent eye surgeon; and Ibn Zuhr, who was known for his methodical experimental approach to surgery and whose distinguished work, ‘Book of Simplification concerning Therapeutics and Diet’ prompted its evolvement.

It was the scholar Al-Zahrawi (known as the ‘Father of modern surgery’) who had the greatest influence and impact on surgery. His thirty-volume treatise, ‘The Method of Medicine’, introduced a range of new surgical procedures and over 200 different surgical instruments, most of which are still used to this day. Al-Zahrawi’s influence was so great that his work was studied at prominent universities in the western world until the end of the 19th century.

Many of the procedures carried out by Islamic surgeons were complex and intricate, and so required cutting edge surgical instruments. Such examples include forceps, hooks and various scalpels, most of which have received only small modifications when being adapted for use in modern surgical procedures. Similarly, some procedures invented by the surgeons of the Islamic Golden Age were still used well into the era of modern medicine, such as the use of catgut for internal stitching and the treatment of broken or disjointed bones through external pressure.

In medieval Islamic society, antisepsis and anesthesia were important aspects of surgery. Ancient Islamic physicians attempted to prevent infection when performing procedures for a sick patient, for example by washing a patient before a procedure. Similarly, following a procedure, the area was often cleaned with “wine, wine mixed with oil of roses, oil of roses alone, salt water, or vinegar water” which have antiseptic properties, among other substances. Drugs to cause drowsiness, especially opium, were used to cause unconsciousness before operations, as a modern-day anesthetic would.

Physicians like al-Razi wrote about the importance of morality in medicine, and may have presented, together with Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis, the first concept of ethics or "pratical philosophy" in Islamic medicine. Al-Razi wote his treatise ‘Book on Spritual Physick’ on popular ethics. He felt that it was important not only for the physician to be an expert in his field, but also to be a role model. His ideas on medical ethics were divided into three concepts: the physician's responsibility to patients and to self, and also the patients’ responsibility to physicians.

The earliest surviving Arabic work on medical ethics is ‘Morals of the physician’ (or ‘Practical Medical Deontology’) and was based on the works of Hippocrates and Galen. Morals of the physician was al-Ruhawi's introductory comment to elevate the practice of medicine in order to aid the ill and enlist the help of God in his support. He quotes Hippocrates that the medical arts involve three factors: the illness, the patient, and the physician. The book consisted of twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics. In the first chapter of his book, al-Ruhawi declared that the truth is more important for physicians who follow rational ethics and the medical injunctions. Al-Ruhawi regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and insisted them to use proper medical etiquette for strong medical ethics and not to ignore theoretical overtones. In pre-Islamic times, there were problems of a lack of part of an element of struggle and conflict to resolve ethical difficulties. Al-Ruhawi helped bridge this gap.

Hospitals in the Islamic empire were some of the most advanced in the entire world. They were called Bimaristan, meaning "house of the sick". Bimaristan were built and maintained by funds raised through taxes called zakat and by charitable donations called Waqf so that treatments could be provided for free.

Hospitals were secular, serving all people regardless of their race, religion, citizenship, or gender. The Waqf documents stated nobody was ever to be turned away. The ultimate goal of all physicians and hospital staff was to work together to help the well-being of their patients. There was no time limit a patient could spend as an inpatient; the Waqf documents stated the hospital was required to keep all patients until they were fully recovered.

Men and women were admitted to separate but equally equipped wards. The separate wards were further divided into mental disease, contagious disease, non-contagious disease, surgery, medicine, and eye disease. Each hospital contained a lecture hall, kitchen, pharmacy, library, and prayer space. Recreational materials and musicians were often employed to comfort patients. Additionally, physicians and midwives were sent to the poorest, rural areas to care for those who were unable to travel to the hospitals. Indeed, when Ibn Jubayr passed though the Near East on his travels he remarked that “the hospitals are among the finest proofs of the glory of Islam.”

Islamic hospitals were the first to keep written records of patients and their medical treatment. Records were referenced in future treatments. During this era, physician licensure became mandatory in the Abbasid Caliphate. In 931 AD, Caliph Al-Muqtadir learned of the death of one of his subjects as a result of a physician's error. He immediately ordered that doctors would be prevented from practicing until they passed an examination.

Before the turn of the millennium, hospitals became a popular centre for medical education, where students would be trained directly under a practicing physician. The training of physicians in the Islamic empire was extremely meticulous and intensive. Students underwent both practical and theoretical lessons. They would shadow doctors and surgeons during their clinical rounds in order to gain experience in a practical environment.

It was common practice for students to travel to different parts of the empire in order to be taught by the most reputable physicians of the time. As well as lectures and tutorage, the pupils also studied from textbooks and papers by well-known physicians. The rigorous and extensive education of these medical students allowed the physicians of the Islamic empire to be some of the most knowledgeable and accomplished in the world at the time.

Outside of the hospital, physicians would teach students in lectures known as "majlises". Al-Dakhwār became famous throughout Damascus for his majlises and eventually oversaw all of the physicians in Egypt and Syria. He would go on to become the first to establish what would be described as a "medical school" in that its teaching focused solely on medicine. This all eventually led to the standardization and vetting process of medical education.

The birth of pharmacy as an independent, well-defined profession was established in the early ninth century by Muslim scholars. The Islamic physician al-Kindi was the first to differentiate between medicine and pharmacology as a science and established the basics of medical formulary by uncovering how to determine correct drug dosage. The practice and duties of a pharmacist were outlined in al-Biruni’s book, ‘The Book of Pharmacology’; this book also gave detailed knowledge of the properties of almost all know drugs at the time, as well as giving the synonymous drug names in several languages including Persian, Greek, and Afghan.

Sabur Ibn Sahl was a 9th-century physician who wrote the first text on pharmacy in his book ‘Book of medicines’. Islamicate pharmacy achieved the implementation of a systematic method of identifying substances based on their medicinal attributes. In addition, Sabur also wrote three other books on pharmacy, and although his works was not enforced by the government authorities, they were widely accepted in the medical circles.

A major advance to drug development came when al-Zahrawi established the processes of sublimation and distillation when preparing medicines, allowing a whole new assortment of medicines to be manufactured; al-Zahrawi also pioneered the use of catgut parcels in which to store drugs before ingestion, a technique which was a forerunner to the use of drug capsules for modern medications.

As well as establishing the science and philosophy of pharmacy, the practice was closely monitored and supervised by government officials known as muhtasib, who were periodically sent to check the quality and legitimacy of the dispensaries and pharmacists. They were tasked with testing the purity and quality of the drugs being sold and the accuracy of the equipment such as weights and measures, as well as getting rid of charlatans. These maintained the integrity of the practice and ensured that all customers were provided with the treatments that they required.

The pain and medical risk associated with childbirth was so respected that women who died while giving birth could be viewed as martyrs. Medical scholars recognized the importance of family planning, primarily through contraceptives and abortion. The topic of contraceptives and abortion had been very controversial throughout the western world; however, in Islamic culture, due to the ties between women's reproductive health and one's overall well-being, medieval Muslim physicians devoted time and research into recording and testing different theories in this field.

Medical journals and other literature from this time show an extensive and detailed list of a variety of different drugs and plant derived substances that supposedly have abortifacient qualities. Many of these substances were later laboratory tested and found to be correctly identified in their ability to induce a miscarriage. Further development in this field led to the introduction of contraceptives that would prevent one's need to induce a miscarriage.

Abortions were frequently sought after by women of this time. It is clear that the Islamic culture not only incorporated, but brought about positive connotations in regards to women's reproductive health. During a period in which men dominated medicine, the almost immediate inclusion of women's reproductive health in medical texts, along with a variety of different techniques and contraceptive substances, long before the development of 'the pill', reinforces the cultural belief that men and women were to be viewed as equals, in regards to sexual health.

The role of women as practitioners appears in a number of works despite the male dominance within the medical field. Two female physicians from Ibn Zuhr's family served the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 12th century. Later in the 15th century, female surgeons were illustrated for the first time in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's ‘Imperial Surgery’. Female doctors, midwives, and wet nurses have all been mentioned in literature of the time period.

One area of medicine which was greatly contributed to by the work of Islamic physicians was ophthalmology. Islamic physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq produced ten prominent works on field of ophthalmology, in which he depicted the first ever anatomic illustrations of the eye. Islamic oculists were also known to use modern terms in their writings, for instance, ‘cornea’, ‘conjunctiva’, ‘uvea’, and ‘retina’.

It is thought that this field was especially pursued, especially in places such as Egypt, due to the prevalence of eye diseases caused by desert dust. As a result, many major breakthroughs were made in the treatment of these diseases, the most renowned of which was the cure for cataracts. Developed by the Iraqi physician al-Mawsili, and documented in his book Choice of Eye Diseases, the treatment involved using a hollow needle, designed by al-Mawsili, to remove the cataract by suction. The treatment has only a few modern modifications in the modern world due to advanced technology, but the original treatment of couching cataracts still lives on in some countries, predominantly those in Southern Asia.

Al-Mawsili wasn’t the only prominent oculist of the Islamic Golden Age; al-Gafiqi developed a treatment of the eye disease trachoma, which was used until the First World War; Ibn al-Nafis wrote a prominent textbook on ophthalmology called ‘The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology’. However, by far the most prominent oculist was Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal. Ibn Isa’s predominant work ‘The Notebook of the Oculist’, was the most comprehensive and accurate text book on ophthalmology ever written at the time, covering over 130 different diseases of the eye and remaining the supreme authority in its field for centuries, even being translated into Latin.

Practices in Islamic medicine was concerned with the prevention of disease and illness along with than finding cures, especially through basic hygiene and cleanliness. Common practices included washing five times a day before each prayer, and the brushing of teeth using a miswak twig, which has since been proven to contain anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, reducing gum infections and tooth decay. Furthermore, the use of soaps was commonplace, made using oil and al-qali (root of the word ‘alkali’), which was a salt-like substance made from sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate; the mixture was boiled and left to harden; decorative coloured and perfumed soap was made as well as medicinal soaps. At the same time in Europe soap was unheard of and wasn’t introduced until the 18th century.

In fact, hygiene was so significant to Muslims that it was considered as a medical science rather than a separate practice. Al-Zahrawi even included a treatise on ‘Medicines of Beauty’ in his book ‘The Method of Medicine’, which described the care of teeth, hair, and skin among other parts of the body. Treatments included the strengthening of gums and whitening of teeth, as well as the use of nasal sprays, mouth washes, sun lotion, and hand creams.

As well as external hygiene, Muslims were also concerned with their internal cleanliness. Numerous damaging dietary practices were banned by the teachings of the Shari’ah, including the consumption of pork, alcohol, and other intoxicants. Other dietary habits such as fasting and eating less than desired were also encouraged. The importance of a healthy diet played a very significant role in Islamic medicine, with the first ever scientific book on food and regimen of health, ‘The Book of Diet’ being written by Ibn Zuhr during the 11th century.

Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Latinized: Rhazes) was one of the most versatile scientists of the Islamic Golden Age. A Persian-born physician, alchemist, and philosopher, he is most famous for his medical works, but he also wrote botanical and zoological works, as well as books on physics and mathematics. Many of his books were translated into Latin, and he remained one of the undisputed authorities in European medicine well into the 17th century. He was considered by many to be the father of Islamic medicine due to the way he refined the scientific method and promoted experimentation and observation as the most reliable way to carry out research.

Arguably his greatest achievement was ‘The Comprehensive Book on Medicine’, which compiled most of the known medical knowledge from the time. Also known as ‘The Virtuous Life’, this twenty-three-volume encyclopaedia was a posthumous compilation of Rhazes’ medical notes that he made throughout his life in the form of extracts from his reading, as well as observations from his own medical experience. Al-Razi cited Greek, Syrian, Indian, and earlier Arabic works, and also included his own research. This included one of his most significant and celebrated studies, a clinical characterisation of smallpox and measles which allowed the two diseases to be distinguished from each other for the first time. The works covered every branch of medicine, with each volume dealing with specific parts or diseases of the body.

‘The Comprehensive Book on Medicine’ remained one of the most respected medical textbooks, not only in the Islamic world, but also in the West for several centuries. It remained an authoritative textbook on medicine in most European universities, regarded until the seventeenth century as the most comprehensive work ever written by a medical scientist.

Rhazes also produced over two hundred other books on medicine and philosophy, among which notable titles included ‘The Diseases of Children’, which was the first book to deal with paediatrics as an independent field of medicine; and ‘A Medical Advisor for the General Public’, the first medical manual directed specifically at the general public, which included treatments for a range of common ailments such as headaches, colds, and coughing.

Another of Rhazes’ greatest successes lay in his progressive stance towards the ethics of medicine. He wrote extensively on the nature of relationship between a doctor and their patient, believing that it should be built on trust, and heavily condemned the practices of charlatan doctors who extorted the afflicted by selling fake cures. Therefore, Al-Razi established himself not only as one of Islam’s most knowledgeable physicians, but also one of great moral standing, whose progressive medical ethics helped shape the legitimacy and integrity of the medical practice for centuries to come.

Abu-Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdullah ibn-Sina (Latinized: Avicenna) was Perian polymath and physician of the tenth and eleventh centuries. He was known for his scientific works, but especially his writing on medicine. He has been described as the "Father of Early Modern Medicine".

Ibn Sina is credited with many varied medical observations and discoveries, such as recognizing the potential of airborne transmission of disease, providing insight into many psychiatric conditions, recommending use of forceps in deliveries complicated by fetal distress, distinguishing central from peripheral facial paralysis, and describing guinea worm infection and trigeminal neuralgia.

By the age of sixteen he was already researching and practicing medicine, and during his career he wrote a total of 276 works, 43 of which were in medicine. In 1025, he completed his most famous work, ‘Code of Laws in Medicine’, otherwise known simply as the ‘Canon’. The Canon is comprised of five different books which cover different aspects of medicine, compiling previously known information and Avicenna’s own research: General Medical Principles, Material Medica, Diseases Occurring in a Particular Part of the Body, Diseases Not Specific to One Bodily Part and Recipes for Compound Remedies. Its arrangement, comprehensiveness and methods of explanation very closely follow the format of modern medical textbooks, and consequently the Canon became the most widely used medical textbook in Europe and the Islamic empire up until the 17th century; its influence was so enduring that it was still in use at Brussels University until 1909.

While the Canon was by far Ibn Sina’s most celebrated book, his most widespread work during the Islamic Golden Age was his ‘Medical Poem’, which was summarised basic medical principles into poetic form, so easing their memorisation by medical students. His other works cover subjects including angelology, heart medicines, and treatment of kidney diseases.

Ali ibn Musa al-Rida (765–818) is the 8th Imam of the Shia. His treatise "Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah" ("The Golden Treatise") deals with medical cures and the maintenance of good health, and is dedicated to the caliph Ma'mun. It was regarded at his time as an important work of literature in the science of medicine, and the most precious medical treatise from the point of view of Muslimic religious tradition. It is honoured by the title "the golden treatise" as Ma'mun had ordered it to be written in gold ink. In his work, Al-Ridha is influenced by the concept of humoral medicine.

The first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic language was by Persian scientist Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari's Firdous al-Hikmah ("Paradise of Wisdom"), written in seven parts, c. 860 dedicated to Caliph al-Mutawakkil. His encyclopedia was influenced by Greek sources, Hippocrates, Galen, Aristotle, and Dioscurides. Al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development, emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and the need for psychotherapy and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients. His encyclopedia also discussed the influence of Sushruta and Charaka on medicine, including psychotherapy.

Al-Tamimi, the physician (d. 990) became renown for his skills in compounding medicines, especially theriac, an antidote for poisons. His works, many of which no longer survive, are cited by later physicians. Taking what was known at the time by the classical Greek writers, Al-Tamimi expanded on their knowledge of the properties of plants and minerals, becoming avant garde in his field.

'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (died 994 AD), also known as Haly Abbas, was famous for the Kitab al-Maliki translated as the Complete Book of the Medical Art and later, more famously known as The Royal Book. Considered one of the great classical works of Islamic medicine, it was free of magical and astrological ideas and thought to represent Galenism of Arabic medicine in the purest form. This book was translated by Constantine and was used as a textbook of surgery in schools across Europe. The Royal Book has maintained the same level of fame as Avicenna's Canon throughout the Middle Ages and into modern time. One of the greatest contributions Haly Abbas made to medical science was his description of the capillary circulation found within the Royal Book.

Ibn Buṭlān, otherwise known as Yawānīs al-Mukhtār ibn al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAbdūn al-Baghdādī, was an Arab physician who was active in Baghdad during the Islamic Golden Age. He is known as an author of the Taqwim al-Sihhah (The Maintenance of Health تقويم الصحة), in the West, best known under its Latinized translation, Tacuinum Sanitatis (sometimes Taccuinum Sanitatis). The work treated matters of hygiene, dietetics, and exercise. It emphasized the benefits of regular attention to the personal physical and mental well-being. The continued popularity and publication of his book into the sixteenth century is thought to be demonstration of the influence that Arabic culture had on early modern Europe.